Nadelmann, Ethan, "Part 2. Drug Prohibition in the United States: Costs, Consequences, and Alternatives." Science. Sep. 1989: pp. 939-947.
References and Notes
1. The terms Legalization and decriminalization are used interchangeably here. Some interpret the latter term as a more limited form of legalization involving the removal of criminal sanctions against users but not against producers and sellers.
2. Statement by Senator D. P. Moynihan. citing a U.S. Department of Agriculture report, in Congr. Rec. 134 (no. 77), p. S7049 (27 May 1988).
3. Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice. Intell(. Trends 14 (no. 3), 1 (1987).
4. See, for example, K. Healy, J. Interam. Stud. World 4: 30 (no. 2/3), 105 (summer/fall 1988).
5. E. A. Nadelmann, ibid. 29 (no. 4), 1 (winter 1987-88).
6. C. McClintock, ibid. 30 (no. 2/3),127 (summer/fall 1988), J. Kawell Report the Americas 22 (no. 6), 13 (March 1989).
7. P. Reuters, Public Interest (no. 92) (summer 1988), p. 51.
8. See the annual report of the National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee edited by the Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice, Washington, DC.
9. Street-Level Drug Enforcement: Examining the s, M. R Chaiken, Ed. (National Institute of Justice. Department of Justice, Washington, DC, September 1988).
10. National Drug Enforcement Policy Board, National and Intentional Drug Law Enforcement strategy (Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 1987).
11. Anti-Drug [law enforcement Efforts and Their Impact (report prepared for the U.S. Customs Service by Whartan Econometric Forcasting Associates, Washington, DC, 1987), pp. 2 and 38-46.
12. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1987 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 1988), pp. 490, 494, and 518; and Prisioners in 1987" Bur. Justice State. Bull. (April 1988).
13. U.S. Sentencing Commission. Supplementary Report on the initial Sentencing Guidelines U and Policy Statements (U-S. Sentencing Commission Washington, DC, 18 June 1987), pp. 71-75.
14. R D. McFadden, New York Times, 5 January 1988, p. B1.
15. Annual Report, 1987-88 (Florida Department of Corrections, Tallahassee, FL, 1988), pp. 26, 50, and 51.
16. Felony sentences in state courts 1986 n Bur. Justice State. Bull. (February 1989)
17. The numbers cited do not, it should be emphasized, include the many inmates sentenced for drug-related crimes such as violent crimes committed by drug dealers, typically against one another, and robberies committed to earn the money needed to pay for illegal drugs.
18. See the annual editions of SourceBook/e of Criminal Justice Statistics (Bureau of Justice Statistics, Department of Justice, Washington, DC).
19. SourceBook of criminal Justice Statistics, 1987 (Bureau of Justice statistics, Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 1988), pp. 400 401.
20. Data from the 1985 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (National Institute on Drug Abuse, Rockville, MD, 1987).
21. S. Raab, New York Times, 7 June 1987, p. A38.
22. Drug Use and Drug Programs in the Washington Metropolitan Area: An Assessment (Greater Washington Research Center, Washington, DC, 1988), pp. 16-17.
23. Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates, The Impart: Organized Crime Today (Presidents Commission on Organized Crime, Washington, DC, 1986), pp. 413
24. B. D. Johnson et al., Taking Care of Business: The Economics of Crime By Heroin Abusers (Lexington Books, Lexington, Ma 1985).
25. B. D. Johnson, D. Lipton, E. Wish Fasts About the Criminality of Heroin and Cocaine Abusers and Some New Alternatives to Incarceration (Narcotic and Drug Research, New York 1986), p. 30.
26. G. F. van de Wiingart, Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 14 (no. 1), 125 (1988).
27. A controlled trial in which 96 confirmed heroin addicts requesting a heroin maintenance prescription were randomly allocated to treatment with injectable heroin or oral methadone showed that "Refusal [by doctors] to prescribe heroin is . . . associated with a considerably higher abstinence rate, but at the expense of an increased arrest rate and a higher level of illicit drug involvement and criminal activity among those who did nor become abstinent" R. L. Harrnoll et al . .Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 37. 877 (1980).
28. "Drug use and crime." Bur. Justice Stat. Spec. Rep. (July 1988).
29. See the discussion in P. J. Goldstein, P. A. Bellucci, B. J. Spunt, T. Miller, "Frequency of Cocaine Use and Violence: in Comparison Between Men and Women" (in NIDA (National Institute on Drug Abuse) Res. Monogr. Ser., in press.
30. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1986 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, Department of Justice. Washington, DC, 1987), p. 398.
31. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 1987 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, Department of Justice, Washington, DC. 1988), p. 497.
32. P. J. Goldstein, in Pathways to Criminal Violence, N. A. Weiner and M. E. Wolfgang, Eds. (Sage, Newbury Park. CA, 1989), pp. 16-48.
33. "A tide of drug killing," Newsweek. 16 January 1989, p. 44.
34. P. Shannon, New York Times, 11 April 1988, p. A1.
35. W. Nobles, L. Goddard. W. Cavil P. George, "The Culture of Drugs in the Black Community" (Institute for the Advanced Study of Black Family Life and Culture, Oakland, CA, 1987).
36. T. Mieczowski, Criminology 24, 645 (1986).
37. C. L. Renfroe and T. A. Messinger, Semin. Adolescent Med. 1 (no. 4), 247 (1985).
38. D. C. Des Jarlais and S. R. Friedman, J. AIDS l. 267 (1988).
39. D. C. Des Jarlais et al., J. Am. Med. Assoc. 261, 1008 (1989).
40. S. R Friedman et al., Int. J. Addict. 22 (no. 3), 201 (1987).
41. T. Bennett, Law Contemp. Prob. 5I. 310 (1988).
42. R. J. Battjes and R. W. Pickens, Eds., NIDA Res. Monogr. Ser. 80 (1988).
43. D. C. Des Jarlais and S. R. Friedman, AIDS 2 (suppl. 1), S65 (1988).
44. M. Marriott, New York Times, 7 November 1988, p. B1; ibid., 30 January 1989, p. A1.
45. Int. Work. Group AIDS IV Drug Use Newsl. 3, 3 (December 1988).
46. See, for example, P. Fitzgerald, St. Louis Univ. Public Law Rev. 6, 371 (1987).
47. L. Grinspoon and J. B. Bakalar, in Dealing with Drugs: Consequences of Government Control, R. Hamowy, Ed. (Lexington Books, Lexington, MA. 1987), pp. 183-219.
48. T. H. Mikuriya. Ed., Marijuana: Medical Papers, 1839-1972 (Medi-Comp Press, Oakland CA, 1973).
49. In the Matter of Marijuana Rescheduling Petition, Docket No. 86-22, 6 September 1988, Drug Enforcement Administration. Department of Justice.
50. A. S. Trebach, The Heroin Solution (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1982), pp. 59-84.
51. L. Appleby, Saturday Night (November 1985), p. 13.
52. F. R Lee; New York Times, 10 February 1989, p. B3; F. Barre, Headache 22, 69 (19827.
53. L. Grinspoon and J. B. Bakalar, Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered, (Basic Book, New York, 1979).
54. M. Donovan, P. Dillon, L. McGuire, Pain 30, 69 (1987); D. E. Weissman, Narc Officer 5 (no. 1), 47 (January 1989); D. Goleman, New York Times, 31 December 1987, p. B5. The Controlled Substances Act, 21 U.S.C. *801, et seq. defines a Schedule I drug as one that: (i) has a high potential for abuse; (ii) has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States; and (iii) for which there is a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. It is contrary to federal law for physicians to prescribe Schedule 1 drugs to patients for therapeutic purpose.
55. SourceBook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1987 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 1988), p. 417.
56. "Toward a national plan to combat alcohol abuse and Alcoholism: A report to the United States Congress" (Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, September 1986).
57. D. R Gerstein, in Alcohol and Public Policy: Beyond the Shadow of Prohibition, M. H. Moore and D. R. Gerstein, Eds. (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1981), pp. 182-224.
58. Cited in T. Wicker, New York Times, 13 May 1987, p. A27.
59. M. M. Kondracke New Repub. 198 (no. 26), 16 (27 June 1988).
60. "Marijuana" (National Institute on Drug Abuse, Washington, DC, 1983).
61. J. D. Miller and I. H. Cisin, Highlights the National Survey on Drug Abuse, 1982 (National Institute on Drug Abuse, Washington, DC, 1983), pp. 1-10.
62. P. M. O'Malley, L. D. Johnston, J. G. Bachman, NIDA Momgr. Ser. 61 (1985),pp. 50-75.
63. T. G. Aigner and R L. Balster, Science, 201, 534 (1978); C. E. Johanson, NIDA Monogr. Ser. 50 (1984), pp. 54-71.
64. J. F. French and J. Safford, Lancet i 1082 (1989)- D. C. Des Jarlais, S. R Friedman, C. Casriel A. Kott, Psychol. Health I, 179 (1987).
65. J. Kaplan, The Hardest Drug: Heroin and Public Policy (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, lL, 1983), p. 127.
66. S. SIEGEL Res. Adv. Alcohol Drug Probl. 9, 279 (1986).
67. J. A. O'Donnell, Narcotics Addicts in Kentucky (Public Health Service Publ 1881, National Institute of Mental Health, Chevy Chase, MD, 1969), discussed in Licit and Illicit Drugs [E. M. Brecher and the Editors of Consumer Reports (Little, Brown, Boston, 1972), pp. 8-10].
68. See N. Zinberg, Drug, Set and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use (Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1984).
69. L. D. Johnston, J. G. Bachman, P. M. O'Malley, "Marijuana decriminalization: the impact on youth 1975-1980" (Monitoring the Future, Occasional Papa 13, Univ. Of Michigan Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981).
70. "Policy on drug users" (Ministry of welfare, Health, and Cultural Affairs, Rijswijk, the Netherlands, 1985).
71. D. Coutrwright, Dark Paradise: Opiate Addiction in America Before 1940 (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge. MA, 1982).
72. E. M. Brecher and the Editors of Consumer Reports, Licit and Illicit Drugs (Little)
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