Research Findings on Medicinal Properties of Marijuana: Bibliography & Notes

Overviews of Marijuana's Safety and Effectiveness

Beaconsfield, D., Ginsburg, J., and Rainsbury, R. (1973). Therapeutic potential of marihuana. New Eng. J. Medicine 289, 1315.

Therapeutic Aspects. 1974. Marijuana and Health, Fourth Annual Report to the U.S. Congress, Nat'l Institute on Drug Abuse, 134-143.

Therapeutic Aspects. 1975. Marijuana and Health, Fifth Annual Report to the U.S. Congress, Nat'l Institute on Drug Abuse, 117-132.

Bhargave, H. (1978). Potential therapeutic application of naturally occurring and synthetic cannabinoids. Gen. Pharmac., 9, 195-213.

Ungerleider, J. (1979). Marijuana as a good medicine: Its uses against disease. Lecture delivered to UCLA Center for the Health Sciences, August 21, 1979.

Zinberg, N. (1979). On cannabis and health. J. Psychedelic Drugs, 11, 135-144.

AMA Council on Scientific Affairs. (1980). Marihuana reexamined: Pulmonary risks and therapeutic potentials. Conn. Medicine, 44, 521-523. Cohen, S. (1980). Therapeutic aspects. Nat'l Inst. Drug Abuse. Res. Mono. Ser., No. 31, 199-216.

Council on Scientific Affairs. (1981). Marijuana: Its health hazards and therapeutic potentials. JAMA, 246, 1823-1827.

DuQuesne, J. (1981). Cannabis and the Rule of Law. Lancet, Sept. 12, 1981, 581.

Rose, M. (1981). Cannabis and the rule of law. Lancet, July 18, 1981.

Therapeutic potential and medical uses of marijuana. (1982). In Marijuana and Health, Inst. of Medicine, 139-155.

Schurr, A. (1985). Marijuana: Much ado about THC. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 80 C, 1-7.

Ungerleider, J. and Andrysiak, T. (1985). Therapeutic issues of marijuana and THC., Int'l J. Addictions, 20, 691-699.

Grinspoon, L. and Bakalar, J., (1995). Marihuana as Medicine, A Plea for Reconsideration, JAMA, 273: 1875-1876.  

Medical Marijuana and Nausea, Vomiting and Appetite

Hollister, L (1970) Hunger and appetite after single doses of marihuana, alcohol and dextroamphetamine. Clin. Pharmacol. and Therapeutics, 12, 44-49.

Sallan, S.E., Zinberg, N.E., Ferei, E., III, (1975), Antiemetic effect of delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy. N. Eng. J.Med., 293, 795-797.

Greenberg, I., Kuehnle, J., Mendelson,J.H. and Bernstein, J.G. 1976. Effects of marihuana use on body weight and caloric intake in human. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 49: 79-84.

Harris, L. (1976). Analgesic and antitumor potential of the cannabinoids. In Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana. (Cohen and Stillman, eds., 299-309.

Harris, L. Munson, A. and Carchman, R. (1976). Antitumor properties of cannabinoids. In The Pharmacology of Marihuana (Braude and Szara, eds.), 749-762.

Chang, A. et al. (1979). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol as an antiemetic in cancer patients receiving high- dose methotrexate. Annals of Internal Medicine, 91, 819-824.

Sallan, S.E., Cronin, C. Zelen, M., Zinberg, N.E. (1980). Antiemetics in patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer. A randomized comparison of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and prochlorperazine. N. Engl. J. Med., 302: 135-8.

California State Reports, Therapeutic Cannabis Program, Annual Report to the Governor and Legislature, California Research Advisory Panel (1980-1986).

Bateman, D.C., Rawlins, M. (1982). Therapeutic potential of cannabinoids. Br. Med. J., 284, 1211-1212.

Cannabinoids for nausea, (1981). Lancet, Jan. 31, 1981, 255-256.

Frytek, S., Moertel, C.G., (1981), Management of nausea and vomiting in the cancer patient, JAMA, 245, 394-396.

Neidhart, J., Gagen, M., Wilson, H. and Young, D. (1981). Comparative trial of the antiemetic effects of THC and haloperidol. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 21, 385-425.

Michigan Department of Public Health Marijuana Therapeutic Research Project, Trial A 1980-81," Department of Social Oncology, Evaluation Unit, Michigan Cancer Foundation (March 18, 1982).

Ungerleider, J., Andrysiak, T., Fairbanks, L., Goodnight, J., Sama, G. and Jamison, K. (1982). Cancer chemotherapy and marijuana.

Ungerleider, J., Andrysiak, T., Fairbanks, L., Goodnight, J., Sama, G. and Jamison, K. (1982). Cannabis and cancer chemotherapy: A comparison of oral delta-9-THC and prochlorperazine. Cancer, 50, 636-645.

Sensky, T., Baldwin, A., and Pettingale, K. (1983). Cannabinoids as antiemetics. Br. Med. J. , 286, 802.

Kutner, Michael H., Evaluation of the Use of Both Marijuana and THC in Cancer Patients for the Relief of Nausea and Vomiting Associated with Cancer Chemotherapy After Failure of Conventional Anti-Emetic Therapy: Efficacy and Toxicity" as prepared for the Composite State Board of Medical Examiners, Georgia Department of Health, by physicians and researchers at Emory University, Atlanta, (January 20, 1983).

Annual Report: Evaluation of Marijuana and Tetrahydrocannabinol in the Treatment of Nausea and/or Vomiting Associated with Cancer Therapy Unresponsive to Conventional Anti-Emetic Therapy: Efficacy and Toxicity," Board of Pharmacy, State of Tennessee, July 1983.

"The Lynn Pierson Therapeutic Research Program," the Behavioral Health Sciences Division, Health and Environment Department, March 1983 and 1984.

Foltin, R.W., Brady, J.V. and Fischman, M.W. 1986. Behavioral analysis of marijuana effects on food intake in humans. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior. 25: 577-582.

Foltin, R.W. et al., 1988 Effects of Smoked Marijuana on Food Intake and Body Weight of Humans Living in a Residential Laboratory," Appetite 11:1-14

Vinciguerra, V., Moore, T., Brennab, E., Inhalation marijuana as an antiemetic for cancer chemotherapy, (Oct. 1988) N.Y. State J. Medicine, 525-527.

T.F. Plasse, R.W. Gorter, S.H. Krasnow, et al., 1991. Recent clinical experience with dronabinol. Pharmacology, Bichemistry and Behavior 40: 695-700.

Doblin, R., Kleiman, M., Marijuana as antiemetic medicine: A survey of oncologists' experiences and attitudes, (1991), J. Clin. Oncology, 9:7, 1314-1319.

Abrams, D. 1995, Marijuana, the AIDS Wasting Syndrome, and the U.S. Government (Response to Letter) New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 333 (10): 670-671.

Grinspoon, L, J, and Doblin, R. 1995. Marijuana, the AIDS Wasting Syndrome, and the U.S. Government (Letter to ed.) New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 333(10): 670-671.

Wesner, B. 1996. The Medical Marijuana Issue Among PWAs: Reports of Therapeutic Use and Attitudes Toward Legal Reform. Drug Research Unit, Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii at Manoa.

Medical Marijuana and Glaucoma

Hepler, R. and Frank, I., (1971). Marijuana smoking and intraocular pressure. JAMA, 217, 1932.

Hepler, R., Frank, I. and Ungerleider, J. (1972). Pupillary constriction after marijuana smoking. Am. J. Ophthalmol., 74, 1185-1190.

Shapiro, D. (1974). The ocular manifestations of the cannabinoids. Opthalmologica, 168, 366-369.

Hepler, R. and Petrus, R. (1976). Experiences with administration of marijuana to glaucoma. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana. (Cohen and Stillman, eds.), 63-75.

Perez-Reyes, M., Wagner, D., Wall, M. and Davis, K. (1976). Intravenous administration of cannabinoids and intraocular pressure. In The Pharmacology of Marihuana (Braude and Szara, eds.), 829-832.

Goldberg, I., Kass, M. and Becker, B. (1978-1979). Marijuana as a treatment for glaucoma. Sightsaving Review, Winter issue, 147-154.

Crawford, W., and Merritt, J. (1979). Effects of tetrahydrocannabinol on arterial and intraocular hypertension. Int'l J. Clin. Pharmacol. and Biopharm. 17, 191-196.

Merritt, J., Crawford, W., Alexander, P., Anduze, A. and Gelbart, S. (1980). Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucoma.Ophthalmology, 87, 222-228.

Merritt, J., McKinnon, S., Armstrong, J., Hatem, G. and Reid, L. (1980). Oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in heterogenous glaucomas. Annals of Ophthalmology, 12, No. 8.

Zimmerman, T. (1980). Efficacy in glaucoma treatment -- the potential of marijuana. Annals of Ophthalmology, 449-450.

Green, L., (1984) Marijuana effects on intraocular pressure, Applied, Pharmacology in the Medical Treatment of Glaucomas, (S.M. Drance, ed.), 507-526.

Merritt, J., et al. (1981). Effects of topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on intraocular pressure in dogs. Glaucoma, Jan./Feb., 13-16.

Merritt, J., Perry, D., Russell, D. and Jones, B. (1981). Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and aqueous dynamics in glaucoma. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 21, 467S-471S.

Merritt, J., Olsen J., Armstrong, J. and McKinnon, S. (1981). Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in hypertensive glaucomas. J. Phar. Pharmacol., 33, 40-41.

Merritt, J. (1982). Glaucoma, hypertension, and marijuana. J. Nat'l Med. Ass'n., 74, 715-716.

Merritt, J., Cook, C. and Davis, K. (1982). Orthostatic hypotension after delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol marihuana inhalation. Ophthalmic Res., 14, 124-128.

Merritt, J. et al. (1982). Topical delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol as a potential glaucoma agent. Glaucoma, 4 253-255.

Merritt, J. (1984). Outpatient cannabinoid therapy for heterogenous glaucomas: Guidelines for institution and maintenance of therapy. Marijuana 84: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Cannabis, 681-683.

Merritt, J., Shrewsbury, R., Locklear F., Demby, K. and Wittle, G. (1986), Effects of delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol and vehicle constituents on intraocular pressure in normotensive dogs. Research Communication in Substances of Abuse, 7, 29-35.  

Medical Marijuana, Muscle Spasm and Convulsion

Carlini, E., Leite, J., Tannhauser, M. and Berardi, A. (1973). Cannabidiol and cannabis sativa extract protect mice and rats against convulsive agents. J. Pharm. Pharmac., 25, 664-665.

Karler, R., Cely, W., and Turkanis, S. (1973). The anticonvulsant activity of cannabidiol and cannabinol. Life Sciences, 13, 1527-1531.

Dunn, M. and Davis, R., (1974). The perceived effects of marijuana on spinal cord injured males, Paraplegia, 12, 175.

Turkanis, S., Cely, W., Olsen, D. and Karler, R. (1974). Anticonvulsant properties of cannabinol. Res. Comm. Chem. Path. Pharmacol., 8, 231-246.

Consroe, P., Wood, G., and Buchsbaum, H. (1975). Anticonvulsant nature of marijuana smoking. JAMA, 234, 306-307.

Karler, R. and Turkanis, S. 1976. The antiepileptic potential of the cannabinoids. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, (Cohen and Stillman, eds.), 383-396.

Feeney, D.M., Marihuana and epilepsy: paradoxical anticonvulsant and convulsant effects, Marijuana Biological Effects: Analysis, Metabolism, Cellular Responses, Reproduction and the Brain, (Nahas, GG., Paxton, M., Bruade, J.C., Hardillier, and Harvey, D.J. eds.) Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 643-657.

Petro, D., (1980), Marihuana as a therapeutic agent for muscle spasm of spasticity, Psychosomatics, 21: 81, 85.

Cunha, J., et al. (1980). Chronic administration of cannabidiol to health volunteers and epileptic patients. Pharmacology, 21, 175-185.

Petro, D., Ellenberger, C., Jr., (1981). Treatment of human spasticity with delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol, J. Clin. Pharmacol., 21:413S-416S.

Clifford, D.B.. 1983. Tetrahydrocannabinol for tremor in multiple sclerosis. Annals of Neurology. 13: 669- 671.

Sandyk, R., Consroe, P., Stern, L., Snider, S., (1986). Effects of cannabidiol in Huntington's Disease, Neurology, 36:331.

Hanigan, W.C., Destree,R. and Truong, X.T., (Feb., 1986), The effect of delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol on human spasticity, Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 198. Truong, X.T.,

Hanigan, W.C., (Feb. 1986). Effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on EMG measurements in human spasticity. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 232.

Cannabis, (1986) Therapeutic Claims in Multiple Sclerosis, Int'l Federation of Multiple Sclerosis Societies, 226.

Ames, F. and Cridland, S. (1986). Anticonvulsant effects of cannabidiol. S. Afr. Med. J., 69, 14.

Ungerleider, T. 1987.Delta 9 THC in treatment of spasticity associated with marijuana. Advances in Alcohol and Substance Abuse, 7: 39-51.

Meinck, H.M., Schonle, P.W., Conrad, B. 1989. Effect of Cannabinoids on Spasticity and Ataxia in multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neurology 236: 120-122.

Maurer, M., Henn, V., Dittrich A., Hoffamn, A., 1990. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol shows antispastic and analgesic effects in a single case double-blind trial. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 240: 1-4.

Notes

1. Proposition 215 in California creates a defense to criminal charges if a doctor recommends medical use of marijuana to a patient . Proposition 200 in Arizona, among other things, allows a doctor to prescribe any Schedule I drug if it is supported by another doctor and the medical literature. 
2. Statement Released by Barry R. McCaffrey, Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy, The Administration's Response to the Passage of California Proposition 215 and Arizona Proposition 200, December 30, 1996, page 2. 
3. Ibid. 
4. Golden, Tim, "U.S. Government to Prosecute Doctors Who Prescribe Marijuana," The New York Times, December 23, 1996. 
5. Statement Released by Barry R. McCaffrey, Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy, The Administration's Response to the Passage of California Proposition 215 and Arizona Proposition 200, December 30, 1996, pg. 6. 
6. Drug Czar McCaffrey has consistently claimed there is no research showing smoked marijuana works. On CNN on December 30 at 1:04 EST, he was asked whether there is any evidence that marijuana is an effective medicine. McCaffrey responded that there was none: No, none at all. There are hundreds of studies that indicate that it isn't." This claim is so preposterous that the drug czar's employees will not even support it. On January 2, a spokesperson for McCaffrey's office denied her boss had ever made such a claim. On CNN's Burden of Proof," Pat Seitz said: He has not said there is no research. He has not said there is no research." 
7. Therapeutic Aspects. 1975. Marijuana and Health, Fifth Annual Report to the U.S. Congress, Nat'l Institute on Drug Abuse, 118-119. 
8. Therapeutic Aspects. 1975. Marijuana and Health, Fifth Annual Report to the U.S. Congress, Nat'l Institute on Drug Abuse, 117; Grinspoon, Lester and Bakalar, James, Marihuana as Medicine," The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 273, No. 23 1875-1876. 
9. Therapeutic Aspects. 1974. Marijuana and Health, Fourth Annual Report to the U.S. Congress, Nat'l Institute on Drug Abuse, 134 citing: O'Shaughnessey, W.B. On the preparation of the Indian hemp or gunjah. Translations of Medicine, Physiology and Sociology, Bengal: 1838-1840, pp. 71- 102; 1842, pp. 421-461 and Moreau de Tours, K. Psychotic depression with stupor: tendency toward dementia: treatment with an extract of cannabis indica. Lancette Hospital Gazette, 30: 391 (1857). 
10. Therapeutic Aspects. 1975. Marijuana and Health, Fifth Annual Report to the U.S. Congress, Nat'l Institute on Drug Abuse, 117. 
11. Mechoulam, S., Lander, N., Dikstein, S., Carlini, E.A., and Blumenthal, M. (1976). On the Therapeutic Possibilities of Some Cannabinoids. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marihuana (Cohen and Stillman eds.), 36. 
12. co, 1981 at 5. The New York State Department of Health stated that [t]he program is a large-scale (phase III) cooperative clinical trial. . ." see: Evaluation of the Antiemetic Properties of Inhalation Marijuana in Cancer Patients Receiving Chemotherapy Treatment," New York Department of Health, Office of Public Health, Chapter 810, Laws of 1980 Article 33-A, Public Health Law, September, 1981, at 3 cited in Randall, R.C. (editor), Marijuana, Medicine and the Law Volume II, Galen Press, 1989, page 47. For further discussion see note 23. 
13. Doblin, R., Kleiman, M., Marijuana as antiemetic medicine: A survey of oncologists' experiences and attitudes, (1991), J. Clin. Oncology, 9:7, 1314-1319. 
14. Almost all of the materials published in this compilation were part of the record of proceedings challenging the scheduling of marijuana under the Controlled Substances Act before the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. In the Matter of Marijuana Rescheduling Petition, No. 86-22 (U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Sept. 6, 1988). Most of the materials were compiled by the Alliance for Cannabis Therapeutics led by Robert Randall and Alice O'Leary. Also included in this compilation are materials contained in the evidence submitted by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Finally, some of the materials included were published after that litigation was completed.
15. Abrams, D. 1995, Marijuana, the AIDS Wasting Syndrome, and the U.S. Government (Response to Letter) In New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 333 (10): 670-671; Grinspoon, L, J, and Doblin, R. 1995. Marijuana, the AIDS Wasting Syndrome, and the U.S. Government (Letter to ed.) In New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 333(10): 670-671. 
16. T.F. Plasse, R.W. Gorter, S.H. Krasnow, et al., 1991. Recent clinical experience with dronabinol. Pharmacology, Bichemistry and Behavior 40: 695-700. 
17. Wesner, B. 1996. The Medical Marijuana Issue Among PWAs: Reports of Therapeutic Use and Attitudes Toward Legal Reform. Drug Research Unit, Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii at Manoa. 
18. Dope Use Improves Lives of Patients: Research," The Canberra Times, January 15, 1997. 
19. Hepler, R. and Frank, I., (1971). Marijuana smoking and intraocular pressure. JAMA, 217, 1932; Hepler, R., Frank, I. and Ungerleider, J. (1972). Pupillary constriction after marijuana smoking. Am. J. Ophthalmol., 74, 1185-1190; Hepler, R. and Petrus, R. (1976). Experiences with administration of marijuana to glaucoma. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana. (Cohen and Stillman, eds.), 63-75; Goldberg, I., Kass, M. and Becker, B. (1978-1979). Marijuana as a treatment for glaucoma. Sightsaving Review, Winter issue, 147-154; Merritt, J., Crawford, W., Alexander, P., Anduze, A. and Gelbart, S. (1980). Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucoma. Ophthalmology, 87, 222-228; Zimmerman, T. (1980). Efficacy in glaucoma treatment -- the potential of marijuana. Annals of Ophthalmology, 449-450. 
20. Carlini, E., Leite, J., Tannhauser, M. and Berardi, A. (1973). Cannabidiol and cannabis sativa extract protect mice and rats against convulsive agents. J. Pharm. Pharmac., 25, 664-665; Dunn, M. and Davis, R., (1974). The perceived effects of marijuana on spinal cord injured males, Paraplegia, 12, 175; Consroe, P., Wood, G., and Buchsbaum, H. (1975). Anticonvulsant nature of marijuana smoking. JAMA, 234, 306-307; Feeney, D.M., Marihuana and epilepsy: paradoxical anticonvulsant and convulsant effects, Marijuana Biological Effects: Analysis, Metabolism, Cellular Responses, Reproduction and the Brain, (Nahas, GG., Paxton, M., Bruade, J.C., Hardillier, and Harvey, D.J. eds.) Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 643-657; Petro, D., (1980), Marihuana as a therapeutic agent for muscle spasm of spasticity, Psychosomatics, 21: 81, 85.; Cannabis, (1986) Therapeutic Claims in Multiple Sclerosis, Int'l Federation of Multiple Sclerosis Societies, 226. 
21. The Lynn Pierson Therapeutic Research Program," the Behavioral Health Sciences Division, Health and Environment Department, March 1983 and 1984. 
22. Michigan Department of Public Health Marijuana Therapeutic Research Project, Trial A 1980-81," Department of Social Oncology, Evaluation Unit, Michigan Cancer Foundation (March 18, 1982). 
23. Annual Report: Evaluation of Marijuana and Tetrahydrocannabinol in the Treatment of Nausea and/or Vomiting Associated with Cancer Therapy Unresponsive to Conventional Anti- Emetic Therapy: Efficacy and Toxicity," Board of Pharmacy, State of Tennessee, July 1983. 
24. See note 12 and note 23. 
25. The results of this study were published at: Vinciguerra et al., Inhalation Marijuana as an Antiemetic for Cancer Chemotherapy," The New York State Journal of Medicine, pgs., 525- 527, October 1988. 
26. Kutner, Michael H., Evaluation of the Use of Both Marijuana and THC in Cancer Patients for the Relief of Nausea and Vomiting Associated with Cancer Chemotherapy After Failure of Conventional Anti-Emetic Therapy: Efficacy and Toxicity" as prepared for the Composite State Board of Medical Examiners, Georgia Department of Health, by physicians and researchers at Emory University, Atlanta, (January 20, 1983). 
27. See footnote 12. In describing Phase III research, the final phase before market approval, the California Research Advisory Panel stated:

    Among the safeguards for developing an investigational new drug is a step-wise testing process: the drug is tested in animals before humans, in normal volunteers before patients, and in small groups of people before large groups. Preclinical refers to non-human experiments, e.g., toxicity and pharmacology experiments in animals. Phase I is conducted in small numbers of normal human volunteers to determine dosage levels and other pharmacologic parameter. Phase II clinical trials typically involve small numbers of patients and comparisons to other treatment. Phase III is confirm effectiveness and to assess adverse effects in a large and diverse patient population. Phase IV is used to describe post-marketing reporting on drug safety and effectiveness. Eleventh Annual Report for 1980 to the Governor and Legislature, CRAP, San Francisco, 1981 at 5.

28. Annual Report of the California Research Advisory Panel submitted to the Governor and Legislature from 1981 (Twelfth Annual Report) to 1989 (Twentieth Annual Report). 
29. 47 Fed. Reg. 10082, column 3. The FDA also noted: The risks to the public health from illicit use of THC are likely to be similar to marihuana." 47 Fed. Reg. 10083, column 2.
30. Chang et al., Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol as an Antiemetic in Cancer Patients Receiving High Dose Methotrexate," Annals of Internal Medicine, Volume 91, Number 6, pg. 823, December 1979.
31. Statement Released by Barry R. McCaffrey, Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy, The Administration's Response to the Passage of California Proposition 215 and Arizona Proposition 200, December 30, 1996, page 4 where it states:

32. HHS to ensure the protection of the public health will: (a) examine all medical and scientific evidence relevant to the perceived medical usefulness of marijuana; (b) identify gaps in knowledge and research regarding the health effects of marijuana; (c) determine whether further research or scientific evaluation could answer these questions; and (d) determine how that research could be designed and conducted to yield scientifically useful results.

About the Author

Kevin B. Zeese is President of Common Sense for Drug Policy, an organization dedicated to increasing public information about drug policy. He has worked on a wide array of drug related issues since he graduated from George Washington University Law School in 1980. He is a nationally recognized expert in a variety of drug policy issues.

Regarding the medical use of marijuana, he was lead counsel on a challenge brought against the DEA to the scheduling of marijuana under federal law. He has assisted counsel throughout the nation in defending individuals charged with criminal offenses for their use of marijuana as a medicine or for providing marijuana to the seriously ill through buyer's clubs.

He is the author of Drug Testing Legal Manual, Drug Testing Legal Manual and Practice Aids and co- author of Drug Law: Strategies and Tactics, which he wrote with his sister Eve Zeese, all three published by Clark Boardman Callaghan. He also serves as editor of Drug Law Report for Clark Boardman Callaghan. In addition, he is the author of Drug Prohibition and the Conscience of Nations; Friedman and Szasz On Liberty and Drugs and the editor of numerous books on drug policy and manuals on criminal defense.

Zeese has written for newspapers and journals on a range of drug issues and has appeared on every major television network as a commentator. He served as a consultant to Walter Cronkite for the Discovery Channel special: The Drug Dilemma: War or Peace? He has litigated drug policy issues including the use of the military in drug enforcement, the use of herbicides in marijuana eradication, the medical use of marijuana and urine testing of government employees. He has spoken at nationally recognized legal seminars and testified before Congress on drug related issues.

Mr. Zeese is a member of the executive committee of the Voluntary Committee of Lawyers and a board member of the Media Awareness Project, the Foundation on Drug Policy and Human Rights and the Harm Reduction Coalition. Mr. Zeese is a co-founder of Drug Policy Foundation where he served as Vice President and Counsel and a former Executive Director and Chief Counsel of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws.

Acknowledgment

Special thanks to Bob Randall and Alice O'Leary of the Alliance for Cannabis Therapeutics for their assistance with this project. The foundation of this project was laid in their work before the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration.